In the manufacturing of integrated circuits (ICs), devices are formed on a wafer and connected by conductive interconnect layers. These conductive interconnect layers can be formed during so-called middle-of-the-line (MEOL) processes or back-end-of-line (BEOL) processes. MEOL and BEOL processes are similar in that they both form openings in a dielectric layer (e.g. contact holes, trenches, or via holes in a dielectric layer), and then fill these openings with a conductive material. MEOL differs from BEOL in the MEOL typically occurs earlier in the fabrication process, and may refer to the process of forming contacts to conductive regions such as source/drain drains in the substrate; whereas BEOL typically occurs later in the fabrication process, and may refer to the process of forming successive metallization layers and vias above the contacts formed by MEOL.